NEB Class 11 Humanities Psychology Question Paper 2078 Nepal

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. It examines mental processes (such as thinking, perception, memory, emotion and motivation) and observable behavior of individuals in various situations.

Clinical psychology is an applied area because it uses psychological knowledge and principles in practice to assess, diagnose, treat and prevent mental disorders and psychological distress, helping people improve their mental health and well-being.

Science is based on systematic, objective and empirical investigation that can be tested and verified, whereas common sense is based on personal experience, intuition and everyday assumptions that are not systematically tested.

Genotype refers to the complete set of genes or genetic make-up that an individual inherits, while phenotype refers to the observable physical and behavioral characteristics that result from the interaction of the genotype with the environment.

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience or practice, excluding changes due to maturation, fatigue or drugs.

Example: Every time the school bell rings, students begin to feel hungry and move toward the canteen. Here the bell (neutral stimulus) becomes associated with lunch time (food, the unconditioned stimulus), so eventually the bell alone (conditioned stimulus) triggers hunger and salivation (conditioned response).

Sensation is the process by which sense organs (receptors) detect physical stimuli from the environment and convert them into neural signals that are sent to the brain. It is the basic experience of stimulation of the senses before interpretation.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient) is traditionally calculated by dividing mental age (MA) by chronological age (CA) and multiplying by 100: $IQ = \\frac{MA}{CA} \\times 100$.

Two projective tests are: (1) the Rorschach Inkblot Test, and (2) the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

In educational settings, aptitude tests are used to measure a student's potential or capacity to learn or perform in specific areas. They help in educational and career guidance, identifying students' strengths, predicting future academic success, and placing students in suitable courses or streams.

Motivation refers to the internal processes that initiate, direct and sustain behavior toward a goal. It explains behavior by identifying the needs, drives or incentives that cause a person to act in a particular way — for example, a hungry person seeks food, or a student studies hard to achieve good grades. Thus, understanding someone's motives helps explain why they behave as they do.

The scope of psychology is very broad and covers many specialized fields that apply psychological knowledge to different areas of human life:

1. General Psychology – studies the basic principles, processes and behavior of normal adults.
2. Abnormal/Clinical Psychology – studies, diagnoses and treats mental disorders and abnormal behavior.
3. Developmental Psychology – studies physical, cognitive and social development across the lifespan.
4. Social Psychology – studies how individuals' thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by others.
5. Educational Psychology – applies psychology to teaching and learning processes.
6. Industrial/Organizational Psychology – applies psychology to workplaces, productivity and personnel.
7. Experimental Psychology – uses scientific experiments to study processes such as learning, memory and perception.
8. Counseling Psychology – helps people deal with personal, educational and vocational problems.

Thus the scope of psychology extends to almost every field of human activity, including health, education, industry, sports, environment and forensic settings.

Buddhist philosophy has made several contributions that are reflected in modern psychology:

1. Mindfulness and meditation – Buddhist practices of mindfulness (awareness of the present moment) are now widely used in modern therapies such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT).
2. Mind–body relationship – Buddhism emphasizes the connection between mind and body, influencing modern health and clinical psychology.
3. Emotional regulation – Teachings on controlling desires, anger and attachment relate to modern study of emotion regulation and well-being.
4. Self and consciousness – Buddhist analysis of the mind, perception and consciousness anticipates many ideas in cognitive psychology.
5. Impermanence and acceptance – The idea that suffering arises from craving and that acceptance reduces distress parallels modern acceptance-based therapies (e.g. ACT).

Thus Buddhist philosophy has enriched modern psychology, especially in the areas of mental health, mindfulness-based therapy and the study of consciousness.

Application in mental health:

• Psychology helps in the assessment and diagnosis of mental disorders using interviews and psychological tests.
• It provides treatment through psychotherapy, counseling and behavior modification.
• It promotes prevention and mental health awareness, stress management and rehabilitation.

Application in legal (forensic) context:

• Psychology helps assess the mental state and competency of accused persons.
• Forensic psychologists provide expert testimony in courts.
• It assists in criminal profiling, evaluating witness reliability and eyewitness memory.
• It supports rehabilitation and counseling of offenders in prisons and correction centers.

Thus psychology contributes to both improving individual mental health and supporting fair functioning of the legal/justice system.

Descriptive research aims to describe the characteristics, behaviors or conditions of a population or phenomenon as they exist, without manipulating variables. The survey research method is a common descriptive method that collects data from a large group of people using questionnaires or interviews.

Illustration: Suppose a researcher wants to describe the study habits of Grade XI students. Using the survey method, the researcher prepares a questionnaire and administers it to a representative sample of students. The responses (e.g. hours studied per day, preferred study time, use of mobile phones while studying) are collected and summarized using percentages, averages and frequency tables.

From this survey the researcher can describe patterns — for example, '60% of students study 2–3 hours daily' — thereby describing the existing situation. This shows how descriptive research uses the survey method to gather and summarize information about a population without controlling or changing any variable.

Attention is the process of focusing consciousness on a particular stimulus while ignoring others. The factors affecting attention are of two types:

A. External (objective) factors — relate to the nature of the stimulus:

1. Intensity and size – strong, large or bright stimuli attract attention.
2. Movement – moving objects attract more attention than stationary ones.
3. Repetition – repeated stimuli catch attention.
4. Novelty and change – new or unusual stimuli draw attention.
5. Contrast – a stimulus that differs from its surroundings stands out.
6. Colour and location – bright colours and central position attract attention.

B. Internal (subjective) factors — relate to the individual:

1. Motives and needs – we attend to things that satisfy our needs.
2. Interest – we attend more to things that interest us.
3. Attitude and mental set – readiness to respond influences attention.
4. Past experience – familiar things gain attention.
5. Mood and emotion – emotional state affects what we notice.

Thus both the characteristics of the stimulus and the state of the individual together determine attention.

Role of the pituitary gland: The pituitary gland is a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain, often called the 'master gland' because it controls many other endocrine glands. Its influence on behavior includes:

• Secretes growth hormone (GH) that controls physical growth; over- or under-secretion causes gigantism or dwarfism, affecting self-image and behavior.
• Controls the thyroid, adrenal and sex glands, thereby indirectly regulating metabolism, stress responses and emotions.
• Influences maturation, sexual development and reproductive behavior.
• Affects mood, energy level and reactions to stress. Thus the pituitary gland, by regulating hormones, has a strong influence on growth, emotions and overall behavior.

OR — Decay theory of forgetting: Forgetting is the failure to retrieve information that was previously stored in memory. According to the decay theory (trace decay theory), memory leaves a physical/chemical trace (memory trace or engram) in the brain. When information is learned but not used or rehearsed over time, this memory trace gradually fades or decays due to the passage of time and lack of practice. As a result the information weakens and is eventually lost, leading to forgetting. The theory emphasizes that disuse and the simple passage of time cause the memory trace to disappear, which is why information not repeated or rehearsed is forgotten.

Thinking is a mental process of manipulating information to form concepts, solve problems and make decisions. The 'tools of thought' are the mental representations we use to think, and they help the thinking process as follows:

1. Images (mental images) – visual representations of objects or events allow us to think about things not physically present, aiding imagination and problem solving.
2. Concepts – mental categories that group similar objects, events or ideas. They simplify thinking by allowing us to organize and classify information efficiently.
3. Language (words/symbols) – language allows us to represent ideas, communicate thoughts and reason abstractly. It is the most important tool of thought because it enables complex and logical thinking.
4. Symbols and signs – such as numbers and mathematical symbols, help in reasoning and calculation.
5. Schemas – organized frameworks of knowledge that guide interpretation and reasoning.

These tools help by representing information in the mind, organizing and simplifying it, and enabling reasoning, problem solving and decision making. Without them, abstract and efficient thinking would not be possible.

"Emotion adds colour to one's life" — Justification: Emotions are feelings such as joy, love, fear, anger and sadness that accompany our experiences. They 'add colour' to life in the following ways:

• Emotions make experiences meaningful and enjoyable; happiness, love and excitement give richness and pleasure to life.
• They motivate and energize behavior, pushing us toward goals and away from danger.
• They strengthen social bonds and communication (e.g. love, sympathy, empathy).
• They help in adaptation and survival (e.g. fear warns of danger).
• They make memories vivid and life varied; a life without emotion would be dull and mechanical. Thus emotions enrich human life, making it lively, meaningful and worth living — justifying the statement.

OR — "Forgetting is a boon not a curse": While forgetting seems like a weakness, it is actually beneficial:

• It helps us discard unnecessary, outdated or irrelevant information, keeping the mind uncluttered.
• It allows us to forget painful, traumatic or unpleasant experiences, protecting emotional well-being.
• It frees mental space for new and important learning.
• It prevents information overload so we can focus on what matters.
• It supports efficient memory by retaining only useful information. Therefore, forgetting acts as a useful adaptive mechanism (a boon) rather than merely a defect (a curse).

To study the psychological effects of COVID-19 among school students, the following systematic steps of psychological research are needed:

1. Identifying and defining the problem – Clearly state the problem, e.g. 'What are the psychological effects (anxiety, stress, depression, fear) of COVID-19 on school students?'
2. Reviewing the literature – Study previous research and reports on the psychological impact of pandemics to gain background knowledge.
3. Formulating the hypothesis – Make a testable statement, e.g. 'COVID-19 has increased anxiety and stress levels among school students.'
4. Selecting the research design and method – Choose an appropriate method such as survey, interview or descriptive study suited to the problem.
5. Selecting the sample – Choose a representative sample of school students using suitable sampling techniques.
6. Selecting and constructing tools – Prepare data-collection tools such as questionnaires, anxiety/stress scales and interview schedules.
7. Collecting data – Administer the tools to the sample and gather information ethically, with informed consent.
8. Analyzing and interpreting data – Organize, tabulate and statistically analyze the data and interpret what it shows about psychological effects.
9. Drawing conclusions and reporting – Conclude whether the hypothesis is supported, suggest remedies/recommendations, and prepare the research report.

Following these scientific steps ensures a systematic, objective and reliable study of the psychological effects of COVID-19 on school students.

Both classical conditioning (Pavlov) and operant conditioning (Skinner) are theories of associative learning, but they differ in how learning occurs.

Similarities:

• Both are forms of associative learning where an association is formed.
• Both involve principles such as acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization and discrimination.
• Both explain how behavior is learned through experience with the environment.

Differences:

Conclusion: Classical conditioning explains learning of automatic, reflexive responses through stimulus association, whereas operant conditioning explains learning of voluntary behavior through its consequences (reinforcement and punishment). Together they provide a comprehensive understanding of how behavior is learned.

Why emotional intelligence is essential — any four points: Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to recognize, understand, manage and use one's own emotions and to understand the emotions of others. It is essential in human life for the following reasons:

1. Better self-awareness and self-management – EI helps people recognize their own emotions and control them, leading to better decision-making and reduced impulsive behavior.
2. Improved interpersonal relationships – By understanding others' feelings (empathy), emotionally intelligent people build stronger, healthier relationships and resolve conflicts effectively.
3. Effective communication and teamwork – EI enables people to express themselves appropriately and cooperate well, which is vital at home, school and the workplace.
4. Mental health and stress management – People with high EI cope better with stress, anxiety and frustration, leading to greater psychological well-being and success in life.

(Additional point: EI contributes to leadership and academic/professional success.) Thus emotional intelligence is essential for personal well-being, social harmony and success in life.

OR — "People differ with each other": Individual differences refer to the variations among people in their physical, mental and behavioral characteristics. People differ from one another due to the following psychological bases:

1. Heredity – Inherited genes influence intelligence, temperament, physical traits and abilities, making each person unique.
2. Environment – Family, culture, education, society and life experiences shape personality and behavior differently for each individual.
3. Intelligence – People differ in their levels and types of intelligence (IQ, abilities), affecting learning and problem solving.
4. Personality – Differences in traits (introversion/extroversion, emotional stability, etc.) make individuals behave differently.
5. Interest, aptitude and motivation – People vary in what interests them, their special talents and the strength of their motives.
6. Emotional and social factors – Differences in emotional maturity and social experiences create behavioral differences.

Because heredity and environment interact differently in every person, no two individuals are exactly alike. This justifies the statement that 'people differ with each other.'