NEB Class 11 Humanities Culture Question Paper 2078 Nepal

Tangible culture consists of physical, material objects that can be touched and seen (e.g., temples, monuments, tools, artifacts), whereas intangible culture consists of non-material elements that cannot be touched (e.g., language, beliefs, customs, music, oral traditions).

1. Literary sources (such as the Vamshavalis, Puranas, religious texts and creative literature) provide information about the social customs, traditions, beliefs and lifestyle of past Nepali society. 2. They help reconstruct the history, language, religion and cultural development of Nepali society where archaeological evidence is lacking.

The Gopal (Gopala) dynasty is regarded as the first dynasty of Nepal.

The Kiratis are called nature worshippers because they worship natural elements and forces such as the sun, moon, rivers, stones, trees and land, and their religion (Kirat/Mundhum) centers on the reverence of nature and ancestors rather than idols.

1. He systematized society into a caste/varna hierarchy by classifying people into 64 castes based on their occupations. 2. He introduced standardized weights, measures and codes of conduct, and reformed social rules regarding marriage, mourning and other customs.

The Taleju Bhawani temple in Kathmandu was built by King Mahendra Malla (in 1564 AD).

1. Medieval Nepali art was strongly religious in nature, dominated by temple architecture, pagoda-style structures, and images of Hindu and Buddhist deities. 2. It showed fine craftsmanship in wood carving, stone sculpture and metalwork, with intricate decoration of struts, windows and doorways.

One important divine counsel of Prithvi Narayan Shah is that 'Nepal is a common garden of four castes (Varna) and thirty-six sub-castes (Jat)', emphasizing national unity in diversity. (Another well-known counsel describes Nepal as 'a yam between two boulders', advising balanced relations with neighbouring India and China.)

The major belief of the Vaishnava cult is the worship of Lord Vishnu (and his incarnations such as Rama and Krishna) as the supreme God, the preserver and protector of the universe.

One impact of Gautam Buddha's preaching in my life is the practice of non-violence (Ahimsa) and compassion towards all living beings, which encourages me to live peacefully and avoid harming others. (Answers may vary as this is personal/reflective.)

1. Islam follows the holy book Quran and considers Prophet Muhammad as the messenger of Allah, while Christianity follows the Bible and regards Jesus Christ as the Son of God/Saviour. 2. Muslims worship in mosques and observe practices such as fasting in Ramadan and prayers five times a day, whereas Christians worship in churches and observe practices such as Sunday prayer and Christmas.

While studying archaeological heritage, the appropriate sources are mainly material/archaeological sources, supported by literary and other sources:

1. Monuments and buildings: temples, monasteries, palaces, stupas and chaityas (e.g., Pashupatinath, Swayambhunath, Changu Narayan).
2. Inscriptions (Abhilekh/Shilalekh): stone and copper-plate inscriptions that give dates, names of kings and events (e.g., Changu Narayan inscription of Manadev).
3. Coins (Mudra): ancient coins that reveal the economy, rulers and trade of the period.
4. Sculptures and statues: stone, metal and terracotta images of gods and goddesses showing art and religious belief.
5. Artifacts and remains: tools, pottery, ornaments and ruins excavated from old settlements that reveal the lifestyle of past society.

These sources are studied together with literary sources (Vamshavali, chronicles, religious texts) to reconstruct archaeological heritage.

Settlement development in Kathmandu Valley: According to legend, the valley was once a lake (Nagdaha) that was drained by Manjushree by cutting the Chovar gorge, making the land habitable. Early settlements began near water sources and fertile land. The Gopalas and Kiratis established early pastoral and agricultural settlements. During the Lichhavi and Malla periods, planned towns, temples, palaces, water-spouts (dhunge dhara), ponds and trade routes developed, leading to the growth of the three main cities — Kathmandu, Patan (Lalitpur) and Bhaktapur. Fertile soil, water resources, trade between India and Tibet, and religious centers all encouraged dense, organized settlement in the valley.

OR — Features of art and culture of the Malla Period:

1. Flourishing of pagoda-style temple architecture and palace squares (Durbar Squares of Kathmandu, Patan, Bhaktapur).
2. Fine wood carving, stone and metal sculpture (e.g., struts, windows, statues).
3. Development of religious tolerance and coexistence of Hinduism and Buddhism.
4. Introduction of social reforms and caste system by Jayasthiti Malla; codification of laws.
5. Growth of festivals, music, dance, drama and Newari language and literature.
6. Construction of Krishna Mandir, Taleju temple, and many public utilities like water-spouts and ponds.

The Lichhavi period (c. 4th–9th century AD) is regarded as a golden age for art, literature and language:

Art: Stone sculpture reached its peak, producing masterpieces such as the sleeping Vishnu (Jalashayan Narayan) at Budhanilkantha, the Changu Narayan images, and many idols at Pashupatinath. Architecture flourished with temples, palaces and the Kailashkut Bhawan palace built by Amshuverma.

Literature: Religious and Sanskrit literature developed. Inscriptions themselves are excellent examples of refined literary composition, and Buddhist and Hindu texts were composed.

Language: Sanskrit was the main language of administration and inscriptions, written in the Gupta and Lichhavi (Brahmi-derived) scripts. The local Nepali Bhasa was also spoken. The famous inscriptions of Manadev and Amshuverma show the high standard of language and script of the time.

Inter-municipal (inter-city) cultural relations among Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur and other towns promoted the overall development of medieval Nepali civilization in the following ways:

1. Exchange of art and architecture: Competition and cooperation between the city-states led to imitation and improvement of temples, palaces and Durbar Squares, raising artistic standards.
2. Sharing of festivals and culture: Common festivals, jatras and religious processions were celebrated across cities, strengthening cultural unity.
3. Trade and economy: Movement of goods and craftsmen between cities and with Tibet and India enriched the economy and exchanged skills.
4. Religious harmony: Hindu and Buddhist pilgrimage and shared deities created religious tolerance and cultural integration.
5. Spread of language, literature and learning: Exchange of scholars, manuscripts and the Newari/Sanskrit languages spread knowledge and literature among the cities.

After the completion of the unification campaign by Prithvi Narayan Shah and his successors, the following changes appeared in Nepalese society:

1. National integration: Many small principalities merged into one nation, creating a sense of common Nepali identity among diverse castes and ethnic groups.
2. Cultural and linguistic blending: Nepali (Khas) language spread as a common (lingua franca) language, mixing the cultures of hills, mountains and Terai.
3. Administrative and military reforms: A centralized administration and a unified army were established.
4. Social hierarchy and Hindu influence: Hindu values and the caste system gained wider influence; the policy of 'one nation' under a Hindu monarchy strengthened.
5. Economic changes: Trade routes expanded, land was redistributed (Birta, Jagir systems), and a common economy began to develop.
6. Mobility and migration: People migrated and settled across newly united regions, increasing inter-community contact.

Nepalese society based on the Varnashram system was distinct, as shown by the following points:

1. Varna classification: Society was divided into four Varnas — Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra — each with defined duties and occupations.
2. Ashram system: Human life was organized into four Ashrams — Brahmacharya (student life), Grihastha (household life), Vanaprastha (retirement) and Sannyasa (renunciation) — guiding individuals through life stages.
3. Codification by Jayasthiti Malla: He systematized society into 64 castes based on occupation, giving Nepali society a unique, well-ordered structure.
4. Religious basis and harmony: The system was rooted in Hindu Dharma yet coexisted with Buddhist and ethnic traditions, making Nepali society tolerant and diverse.
5. Social stability and division of labour: Each group's defined role ensured economic functioning and social order, making Nepali Varnashram society distinct from others.

Thus, the Varnashram-based organization gave Nepalese society its own distinct social structure and identity.

The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism are: (1) Dukkha — there is suffering; (2) Samudaya — there is a cause of suffering (desire); (3) Nirodha — suffering can be ended; (4) Magga — the Eightfold Path is the way to end suffering.

Their role in developing society and culture:

1. Promotion of peace and non-violence: The emphasis on Ahimsa reduced violence and promoted harmony in society.
2. Moral and ethical living: The Eightfold Path (right speech, right action, right livelihood, etc.) improved social conduct and ethics.
3. Equality and compassion: Buddhism opposed caste discrimination and preached compassion, encouraging a more equal and humane society.
4. Cultural and artistic development: It inspired the building of stupas, monasteries (vihars), chaityas and Buddhist art, enriching cultural heritage (e.g., Swayambhunath, Bouddhanath).
5. Education and philosophy: Monasteries became centers of learning, spreading knowledge, literature and philosophy that shaped cultural values.

Programs to generate family entertainment while observing festivals:

1. Organizing family gatherings and feasts where all members cook and eat together.
2. Playing traditional games (e.g., cards, swing/ping during Dashain, Deusi-Bhailo during Tihar).
3. Singing folk songs, dancing and playing traditional music together.
4. Decorating the home, making rangoli, and lighting lamps as a family activity.
5. Visiting relatives, exchanging tika, gifts and blessings to strengthen family bonds. (Answers may vary as this is reflective.)

OR — Consequences of the Anglo-Nepal War (1814–1816, ended by the Treaty of Sugauli):

1. Loss of territory: Nepal lost about one-third of its land, including areas east of the Mechi and west of the Mahakali, and parts of the Terai.
2. Treaty of Sugauli (1816): Nepal had to accept a British Resident in Kathmandu, limiting its sovereignty.
3. Recruitment of Gurkhas: The British began recruiting Nepali soldiers (Gurkhas) into their army.
4. End of expansion: Nepal's policy of territorial expansion came to an end, and it became geographically fixed.
5. Diplomatic and economic effects: Nepal's relations with the British shaped its later isolationist foreign policy; the loss of fertile Terai land affected the economy (some land was later restored in 1860).

The Lichhavi period (c. 4th–9th century AD) was a golden age whose civilization continues to influence present Nepali society:

1. Art and architecture: Lichhavi sculptures and temple styles still inspire Nepali art. Monuments like Changu Narayan, Budhanilkantha (Jalashayan Narayan) and Pashupatinath remain living religious and tourist sites today.
2. Religion and festivals: The coexistence of Hinduism and Buddhism established in the Lichhavi era continues; many present-day rituals, deities and festivals trace back to this period.
3. Language and script: Sanskrit and the scripts used in Lichhavi inscriptions influenced the later development of the Nepali and Newari languages and writing.
4. Administration and economy: The Lichhavi system of administration, taxation, trade with Tibet and India, and use of coins (e.g., Manank, Gunank) laid foundations for later economic and administrative practices.
5. Water management: Stone water-spouts (dhunge dhara), ponds and irrigation systems built in this period are still in use and admired for their engineering.
6. Social structure: The social organization, guild systems (Goshthi/Panchali) and community self-governance influenced later local institutions.
7. Historical sources: Lichhavi inscriptions are the most reliable sources of Nepali history, helping present society understand its origins and identity.

Thus, the Lichhavi civilization's contributions in art, religion, language, administration and engineering remain deeply rooted in present Nepali society and culture.

The Baise (22) states of the Karnali region and the Chaubise (24) states of the Gandaki region existed outside the Kathmandu Valley before unification. Their socio-cultural aspects include:

1. Caste and ethnic diversity: Society included Khas, Magar, Gurung, Thakuri, Brahmin and other ethnic groups, with a Hindu caste structure influencing social order.
2. Khas language and culture: The Khas (Nepali) language and culture dominated, which later spread and became the national language after unification.
3. Religion: Hinduism was the main religion, with worship of local deities, Masto (kuldevata) tradition in the Karnali region, and coexistence with animistic and Buddhist practices.
4. Hill-based agrarian society: People lived in scattered hill settlements with an agriculture- and animal-husbandry-based economy.
5. Festivals and traditions: They observed festivals such as Dashain, Tihar, Maghe Sankranti and local jatras, along with folk songs, dances (e.g., Maruni, Sorathi) and traditional dress.
6. Political-social structure: Each state was ruled by a king (often Thakuri/Chaubise rulers) supported by Bharadars and a feudal land system (Birta, Jagir), which shaped social hierarchy.
7. Inter-state relations: Marriage alliances, wars and trade among these states created a shared hill culture that contributed to the later unified Nepali identity.

Thus, the Baise and Chaubise states preserved a distinct hill socio-cultural pattern that strongly shaped modern Nepali society and the Nepali language.

Five major festivals observed in Nepal:

1. Dashain (Bada Dashain): The greatest Hindu festival celebrated for 15 days, marking the victory of Goddess Durga over the demon Mahishasura; families gather, receive tika and jamara, and fly kites.
2. Tihar (Deepawali): The festival of lights celebrated over five days, worshipping crows, dogs, cows, oxen and the bond between brothers and sisters (Bhai Tika); homes are lit with lamps and Deusi-Bhailo is performed.
3. Holi (Fagu Purnima): The festival of colors marking the victory of good over evil, celebrated by playing with colors and water.
4. Buddha Jayanti: Celebrates the birth, enlightenment and death of Gautam Buddha; observed at Buddhist sites like Lumbini, Swayambhunath and Bouddhanath.
5. Maghe Sankranti: Celebrated on the first day of Magh, marking the end of winter; people take holy baths and eat special foods like ghee, chaku, sweet potato and til ladoo. (Others include Teej, Indra Jatra, Gai Jatra, Chhath, Lhosar, Eid, Christmas — showing Nepal's cultural diversity.)

OR — Biography and contributions of Lichhavi King Manadev I: Manadev I (reigned c. 464–505 AD) was one of the greatest and most powerful kings of the Lichhavi dynasty. He was the son of Dharmadev and Queen Rajyavati and ascended the throne at a young age. He is credited with the famous Changu Narayan inscription (464 AD), the oldest dated inscription of Nepal, which provides the earliest reliable history of the country.

Contributions:

1. He suppressed rebellions in the east and west, expanding and consolidating the Lichhavi kingdom.
2. He issued the first Nepali coins (the Manank coins), promoting trade and economy.
3. He patronized art, religion and architecture, building and renovating temples such as Changu Narayan.
4. He maintained both Hindu and Buddhist traditions, promoting religious tolerance.
5. His inscriptions established a high standard of Sanskrit language and serve as the foundation of recorded Nepali history.

Thus, Manadev I is remembered as a brave conqueror, able administrator and great patron of culture in the Lichhavi era.