BSc CSIT (TU) Science E-Governance (BSc CSIT, CSC366) Question Paper 2074 Nepal

E-Governance Business Models

E-governance business models are frameworks that define how a government delivers information and services electronically and how the resulting flow of information and interaction is organised between the government, citizens, businesses and other agencies. They specify the direction of information flow, the actors involved and the value created. The five widely cited models (Heeks) are: the Broadcasting / Wider Dissemination model, the Critical Flow model, the Comparative Analysis model, the Mobilisation & Lobbying model, and the Interactive Service model.

(a) Wider Dissemination (Broadcasting) Model

This model is based on broadcasting useful governmental information that already exists in the public domain into the wider public domain through ICT and the Internet. It is essentially a one-way flow of information from government to citizens.

• Information disseminated: laws, rules, procedures, government schemes, budgets, forms, contact details of officials, performance reports.
• Purpose: make citizens aware of their rights and of government activities, improve transparency, and reduce the information gap between the government and the governed.
• Mechanism: government websites, portals, public information kiosks, electronic notice boards.

Example: A government portal publishing the national budget, citizen-charter, tender notices, and lists of public services online; e.g. the Nepal Government portal (nepal.gov.np) publishing acts and notices, or a municipality publishing tax rates and office procedures on its website.

(b) Critical Flow Model

This model is based on channelling information of critical value to a targeted audience or into the wider public domain through ICT. The strength of this model is that ICT makes it almost impossible to suppress information once it is released; it can be instantly forwarded to those who need it.

• Information disseminated: information that is sensitive or critical such as corruption records, environmental data, human-rights violation records, audit findings, performance of officials.
• Purpose: empower citizens and watchdogs by exposing critical information to the right audience (media, activists, affected communities) so that accountability is enforced.
• Mechanism: targeted websites, whistle-blower portals, RTI (Right to Information) disclosures published online.

Example: Publishing the corruption record / asset details of public officials, or land-records and audit reports online so that affected citizens and the media can scrutinise them; e.g. an anti-corruption body (like CIAA) publishing investigation outcomes, or environmental pollution data of factories being made available to nearby communities.

Comparison

Need for E-Governance Infrastructure

E-governance infrastructure is the backbone of ICT resources (networks, hardware, software, data centres and human resources) needed to deliver government information and services electronically. It is needed because:

• Service delivery: online and 24x7 delivery of services (certificates, payments, applications) requires reliable connectivity and computing.
• Data sharing & integration: different departments must exchange data, which needs a common network and storage backbone.
• Scalability & availability: millions of citizens may access services, demanding high-capacity, always-available systems.
• Security & trust: secure infrastructure protects citizen data and enables authentication and digital signatures.
• Reach & inclusion: connectivity to remote areas is required to bridge the digital divide.

(a) Network Infrastructure

The communication backbone that connects citizens, government offices, departments and data centres. It includes:

• Wide Area Networks (WANs) such as a State/Government Wide Area Network (SWAN) linking central, provincial and local offices.
• LANs within offices, the Internet, leased lines, fibre-optic backbone, broadband, wireless and mobile networks.
• Routers, switches, gateways, bandwidth and last-mile connectivity (including kiosks/CSCs to reach rural citizens).

It provides the medium over which all e-government data and transactions travel.

(b) Computing Infrastructure

The hardware and software resources that process and store information:

• Hardware: servers, workstations, PCs, storage devices, peripherals.
• Software: operating systems, databases (DBMS), application servers, middleware, e-governance application software, and security software.
• Increasingly delivered through cloud / virtualisation to share resources, reduce cost and improve scalability.

This layer actually runs the government applications and manages the data.

(c) Data Centres

A data centre is a centralised, secure facility that houses servers, storage and networking equipment to store, process and manage government data and host e-governance applications.

• Provides centralised hosting (e.g. a State/National Data Centre), consolidated storage, backup, disaster recovery and high availability.
• Features: redundant power (UPS, generators), precision cooling, physical and cyber security, 24x7 monitoring.
• Importance: single secure point for data integration across departments, business-continuity and reliable service delivery.

Together these three layers form an integrated infrastructure enabling secure, reliable and scalable e-governance.

Challenges to E-Governance Security and the Security Model

Challenges to E-Governance Security

Because e-governance handles sensitive citizen and government data over open networks, it faces several security challenges:

1. Confidentiality threats: unauthorised access, eavesdropping and data theft of citizen/government records.
2. Integrity threats: tampering or unauthorised modification of data and documents (e.g. land records, tax data).
3. Authentication problems: verifying the true identity of citizens, officials and systems; impersonation and identity theft.
4. Availability threats: denial-of-service (DoS/DDoS) attacks, system failures and downtime affecting service delivery.
5. Non-repudiation: ensuring a party cannot deny a transaction it performed.
6. Malware, hacking and phishing: viruses, worms, trojans and social-engineering attacks.
7. Insider threats and weak access control: misuse by authorised staff, poor privilege management.
8. Privacy concerns: misuse of personal data, lack of data-protection laws.
9. Legal/policy gaps and lack of awareness: absence of cyber-laws, untrained users, weak policy enforcement.
10. Infrastructure weaknesses: insecure networks, lack of standards and interoperability.

E-Governance Security Model

The security model defines the security goals (services) to be achieved and the mechanisms used to achieve them, organised in layers.

Core security services (CIA + AN):

• Confidentiality: information is disclosed only to authorised parties — achieved by encryption (symmetric/asymmetric).
• Integrity: information is not altered without detection — achieved by hash functions and message digests.
• Authentication: verifying identity of users/systems — achieved by passwords, biometrics, PKI, digital certificates.
• Authorisation / Access control: giving users only the rights they need — role-based access control.
• Non-repudiation: proof of origin and delivery — achieved by digital signatures.
• Availability: services remain accessible — achieved by redundancy, firewalls, IDS/IPS, backup and disaster recovery.

Enabling mechanisms / layers:

• Public Key Infrastructure (PKI): Certifying Authorities (CA) issue digital certificates; public/private key pairs enable digital signatures and encryption — the foundation of trust in e-governance.
• Network security: firewalls, VPNs, intrusion detection/prevention systems, secure protocols (SSL/TLS, HTTPS).
• Application & data security: secure coding, access control, encrypted databases, audit logs.
• Physical security: protection of data centres and devices.
• Policy, legal and human layer: security policies, cyber-laws, audits, user awareness and training.

Conclusion: A robust e-governance security model layers technical controls (cryptography, PKI, firewalls), administrative controls (policies, audits) and physical controls to deliver confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation and availability, thereby building citizen trust.

Benefits of E-Governance

1. Improved service delivery: services such as certificates, licences, tax payment and bill payment are available online, 24x7, faster and from anywhere.
2. Transparency: rules, procedures, budgets and decisions are published online, reducing arbitrariness and discretion.
3. Reduced corruption: automation and online processing minimise human discretion and middlemen, curbing bribery.
4. Accountability: records and performance data become traceable, making officials answerable.
5. Cost and time savings: citizens save travel and waiting time; government reduces paperwork and administrative cost.
6. Convenience and accessibility: single-window / one-stop access; services reachable from remote areas via kiosks and mobile.
7. Efficiency and productivity: faster processing, less duplication, better data sharing among departments.
8. Citizen participation (e-democracy): feedback, grievance redressal and consultation strengthen democracy.
9. Better decision-making: accurate, real-time data helps in planning and policy formulation.

Overall, e-governance makes government SMART — Simple, Moral, Accountable, Responsive and Transparent.

Online Service Delivery

Online service delivery means providing government services to citizens, businesses and other agencies electronically over the Internet/web, without the citizen having to physically visit a government office. It is the core of the G2C (Government-to-Citizen) and G2B (Government-to-Business) interaction.

Characteristics

• Available 24x7 from anywhere, on a self-service basis.
• Often delivered through a single-window / one-stop government portal.
• May involve information, downloadable forms, online application, online payment and electronic delivery of the output (certificate/receipt).

Levels (maturity)

1. Information — publishing service details online.
2. Interaction — downloading forms, search.
3. Transaction — full online processing and payment.
4. Integration — seamless services across departments.

Examples

• Online tax filing / payment (e.g. IRD online tax payment, electricity/water bill payment).
• e-Passport / online passport application.
• Birth, death, marriage and citizenship certificate applications.
• Driving licence / vehicle registration (e.g. online appointment and renewal).
• e-Procurement / online tender submission for businesses.
• Online land-records search, PAN registration, company registration.

These reduce time, cost and corruption while improving convenience and transparency.

Achieving Good Governance through E-Governance Models

Good governance is characterised by transparency, accountability, participation, rule of law, responsiveness, equity and efficiency. The e-governance business models help achieve these attributes as follows:

• Wider Dissemination (Broadcasting) model → promotes transparency by putting laws, budgets, procedures and schemes in the public domain so citizens are informed.
• Critical Flow model → promotes accountability by channelling critical/sensitive information (corruption records, audit findings) to the right audience, deterring malpractice.
• Comparative Analysis model → promotes informed decision-making and learning by comparing past and present, or one region with another, to highlight best practices and expose poor performance.
• Mobilisation and Lobbying model → promotes participation by building consensus and enabling citizens/civil society to express collective opinion and influence policy.
• Interactive Service model → promotes responsiveness and efficiency by enabling two-way interaction and online delivery of services, grievance redressal and feedback.

Result: Together these models make governance SMART (Simple, Moral, Accountable, Responsive, Transparent) — reducing corruption, empowering citizens, ensuring rule of law and improving service delivery, which are the hallmarks of good governance.

E-Readiness and Human Infrastructure Preparedness

E-Readiness

E-readiness is the degree to which a country, community or organisation is prepared, willing and able to adopt, use and benefit from ICT and e-governance. It measures how ready the environment is in terms of infrastructure, human capacity, policy/legal framework and economic conditions. E-readiness assessment helps identify gaps before launching e-governance projects.

Main dimensions of e-readiness: network/ICT infrastructure, human resources, legal & policy framework, e-business/economic environment, and data systems.

Human Infrastructure Preparedness

Human infrastructure preparedness refers to how ready the people are — both the government employees who run the systems and the citizens who use them. It includes:

1. Digital literacy and skills: citizens able to use computers, internet and online services; basic IT literacy.
2. Trained ICT professionals: technical manpower to develop, operate and maintain e-governance systems.
3. Capacity building of government staff: training officials to use applications and change their work culture.
4. Awareness and attitude: citizens aware of available e-services and willing to adopt them; overcoming resistance to change.
5. Language and accessibility: services in local languages and usable by less-educated and differently-abled people.
6. Education system: producing future skilled users and professionals.

Without adequate human preparedness, even well-built technical infrastructure fails, because systems remain unused or wrongly used. Hence capacity building, training and awareness are essential for successful e-governance.

E-Government vs E-Governance

E-government is the use of ICT by government agencies to deliver information and services to citizens, businesses and other agencies (the technology/service-delivery aspect). E-governance is broader — it is the use of ICT to transform the entire process of governance, including decision-making, participation, transparency and the relationship between government and citizens (the process/relationship aspect).

In short: e-government is a subset/tool of the wider concept of e-governance; e-government is about "doing government electronically", while e-governance is about "governing better using ICT".

Digital Divide and its Impact on E-Governance

Concept of Digital Divide

The digital divide is the gap between individuals, groups, regions or countries that have effective access to ICT (computers, internet, digital skills) and those that do not. It is not only about owning devices but also about connectivity, affordability, skills and the ability to use ICT meaningfully.

It arises along several lines:

• Economic – rich vs poor (affordability of devices/internet).
• Geographic – urban vs rural/remote areas (connectivity).
• Educational/skills – literate/IT-skilled vs illiterate.
• Demographic – age, gender, disability differences.
• Infrastructure – availability of electricity and networks.

Impact on E-Governance

• Excludes disadvantaged groups: poor, rural, elderly and illiterate citizens cannot access online services, so e-governance benefits only a section of society.
• Inequity in service delivery: widens the gap between the connected and unconnected, undermining the inclusive goal of good governance.
• Low adoption and participation: reduces citizen participation (e-democracy) and the usage/return on e-governance investment.
• Reinforces existing inequalities instead of reducing them.

Bridging the Divide

• Expand affordable broadband and electricity to rural areas.
• Set up public kiosks / Community Service Centres and offer assisted/mobile services.
• Promote digital literacy and training, local-language and accessible interfaces, subsidised devices, and supportive ICT policy.

Reducing the digital divide is essential so that e-governance becomes truly inclusive and equitable.

Data Centre and its Importance for E-Governance

What is a Data Centre?

A data centre is a centralised, physically and logically secured facility that houses an organisation's computing infrastructure — servers, storage systems, networking equipment, databases and applications — for storing, processing, managing and disseminating data. In e-governance, a State/Government Data Centre acts as the central repository hosting government applications and consolidated data of various departments.

Typical features: racks of servers and storage, redundant power supply (UPS and diesel generators), precision cooling/air-conditioning, fire suppression, high-bandwidth network connectivity, physical access control, and round-the-clock (24x7) monitoring with backup and disaster-recovery systems.

Importance for E-Governance

1. Centralised hosting & data integration: single secure location to host applications and integrate data shared across departments (G2G).
2. High availability & reliability: redundancy ensures services run 24x7 with minimal downtime.
3. Security: centralised, controlled environment protects sensitive citizen/government data.
4. Backup & disaster recovery: ensures business continuity and protection against data loss.
5. Scalability & cost efficiency: shared, consolidated resources (often with cloud/virtualisation) reduce duplication and cost.
6. Performance: high-capacity servers and bandwidth support large numbers of concurrent citizen users.

Thus the data centre is a core building block of e-governance infrastructure, enabling secure, reliable and scalable delivery of e-services.

Interactive Service Model of E-Governance

The Interactive Service model is one of the e-governance business models in which ICT opens up two-way, real-time interaction between the government and its stakeholders (citizens, businesses, other agencies). Unlike the broadcasting (one-way) model, here the various services and the earlier models are integrated through a single portal and citizens can directly interact with the government to obtain services and give feedback.

Key features

• Two-way / interactive flow of information (government ↔ citizen), not just broadcasting.
• Brings together the benefits of the other models (dissemination, critical flow, comparative analysis, mobilisation) under one interactive platform.
• Enables direct delivery of services and transactions electronically.

What it enables

• Online application, transaction and payment for services (certificates, licences, tax, bills).
• Grievance lodging and redressal, complaints and feedback.
• e-Participation: opinion polls, online consultation, discussion forums, e-voting.
• Self-assessment and queries, appointment booking, status tracking.

Examples

• A single-window government portal where a citizen logs in, applies for a service, pays online and tracks status.
• Online grievance/feedback portals, e-consultation on draft policies, online filing and querying of tax returns.

Significance: it is the most mature, citizen-centric model, promoting responsiveness, participation and efficient two-way service delivery — moving e-governance towards e-democracy.

Components of E-Governance Infrastructure

E-governance infrastructure is the complete set of ICT and supporting resources required to deliver e-services. Its main components are:

1. Network Infrastructure: the communication backbone — Internet, WAN/LAN, government-wide networks (e.g. SWAN), fibre-optic backbone, broadband, wireless/mobile, routers, switches and last-mile connectivity to offices and citizens.
2. Computing / Hardware Infrastructure: servers, storage devices, PCs, peripherals and supporting equipment that process and store data; increasingly delivered via cloud/virtualisation.
3. Software Infrastructure: operating systems, databases (DBMS), middleware, application servers, e-governance application software and security software.
4. Data Centres: centralised, secure facilities (state/national data centres) for hosting applications, storage, backup and disaster recovery.
5. Security Infrastructure: PKI and Certifying Authorities, firewalls, encryption, digital signatures, IDS/IPS for confidentiality, integrity and authentication.
6. Legal & Policy Infrastructure: cyber-laws, ICT policy, standards, electronic transaction/digital signature acts and interoperability frameworks.
7. Human Infrastructure: skilled ICT professionals, trained government staff and digitally literate citizens (capacity building and awareness).
8. Service-access Infrastructure: delivery channels and access points such as government portals, kiosks, Community Service Centres (CSCs) and mobile services.

Together these technical, legal and human components form an integrated, secure and reliable e-governance infrastructure.